The exacerbated effects of climate-induced Loss and Damage (L&D) & adaptation capacity: A case study of Liberia, Mozambique, Nigeria, Sudan, and Uganda

This study highlights the disproportionate impact of climate change-induced loss and damage on Sub-Saharan Africa, emphasizing the region’s vulnerability despite its minimal carbon emissions, and calls for urgent international action, equitable climate finance, and stronger adaptation policies to address structural and immediate climate risks.

Multiple Authors

4th Mar 2025
7 min read
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Aftermath of cyclone Idai, Mozambique. Credit: Denis Onyodi: IFRC/DRK/Climate Centre

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Introduction

This study examines the disproportionate impacts of climate change-induced loss and damage (L&D) on Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), a region that contributes less than 4% to global carbon emissions yet faces some of the most severe consequences of extreme weather events. Framed within a climate justice perspective, the report highlights how floods, tropical cyclones, heatwaves, and droughts have led to widespread devastation, including biodiversity loss, displacement, destruction of infrastructure, and threats to food and water security. The study underscores the urgency of addressing these challenges, given that global emissions trends indicate a trajectory towards a 4°C to 5°C warmer world by 2100, with Africa experiencing warming at a faster rate than the global average.

Through a systematic literature review and case studies from Liberia, Mozambique, Nigeria, Sudan, and Uganda, the research provides a detailed examination of the exacerbated effects of climate-induced L&D and explores the adaptation capacities of SSA countries, evaluating how they are responding to climate risks through community-led initiatives, policy interventions, and resilience-building strategies. It finds that weak governance structures, limited financial investment, and socio-economic inequalities hinder effective adaptation, further exacerbating vulnerabilities. The report also draws attention to the intersection of climate change with public health, highlighting how extreme heat, drought, and food insecurity increase the prevalence of diseases, malnutrition, and mortality, particularly among young people, pregnant women, and the elderly.

By situating SSA’s challenges within a global context, the study demonstrates that climate change is a systemic issue that transcends geographical boundaries, necessitating urgent international attention, equitable climate finance, and stronger adaptation policies. The report calls on policymakers, stakeholders, and institutions to implement transformative interventions that address both immediate climate-related crises and long-term structural vulnerabilities, ensuring that those most affected receive the necessary support to build climate resilience.

Study Objectives

The study seeks to:

Assess the climate change impact, vulnerability, and adaptive responses in selected Sub-Saharan African countries (Liberia, Mozambique, Nigeria, Sudan, and Uganda).
Evaluate climate change’s effects on living standards in climate-vulnerable communities in
the selected Sub-Saharan African countries.
Analyze the adaptation responses in the selected Sub-Saharan African countries and differentiate between climate change-induced loss and damage and adaptation capacity
Propose country-specific recommendations for addressing climate change-induced loss
and damage and improving the adaptive capacity of the study area.

Methodology

This study employs a cross-sectional research design to examine recent research on extreme climate events and climate change adaptation capacities in SSA through a systematic literature review, empirical data, and case studies. Grounded in the Climate Justice model’s “integrationist school of thought,” it highlights how climate change exacerbates existing inequalities, disproportionately affecting vulnerable communities in SSA that have contributed the least to global emissions.

Using the IPCC assessment framework, the study evaluates exposure, hazards, vulnerability, impacts, and adaptation capacities in Liberia, Mozambique, Nigeria, Sudan, and Uganda. A systematic review of peer-reviewed literature and organizational reports from the past decade was conducted using databases like Web of Science and Africa Journals Online, focusing on key terms such as “climate change,” “extreme weather events,” and “adaptation” in SSA. The research also examines the intersection of climate policies with land use, economic growth, and social equity.

Distinction between climate change-induced loss and damage and adaptation capacity

Loss and damage	Adaptation Capacity
Loss and damage refer to the consequences that persist after unsuccessful attempts at climate adaptation, or when extreme whether events such as floods, droughts, and rising sea levels overwhelm a system’s or community’s capacity for response. L&D are the diverse effects of climate change that cannot be adequately managed only through adaptation efforts. It encompassed severe, irreversible impacts that exceed adaptation limits. Economic illustrates of L&D includes damage to infrastructure such as roads, buildings and power grids, and financial losses in agriculture and tourism. Examples of non-economic loses include community uprooting, ecosystem deterioration, and cultural heritage destruction.	Adaptation capacity refers to a system, group, or society’s ability to adjust to and deal with the effects of climate change. This requires implementing strategies and plans to increase resilience and decrease vulnerability in the face of changing climatic circumstances such as: putting early warning systems into place to improve preparedness, addressing changing precipitation patterns with better water management practice, incorporating climate considerations into land-use planning to lessen exposure to climate risks, diversifying livelihoods to lessen reliance on climate resilience on climate-sensitive sectors, and creating climate resilient infrastructure.
L&D focuses on managing and compensating for climate impacts that have already occurred or are unavoidable, such as the destruction from extreme weather events or permanent loss of territorial land. It requires specific mechanisms for assessment, compensation, and support after climate disasters strike. The concept emphasizes justice and accountability, often involving complex international negotiations about responsibility and compensation for climate-induced losses.	Adaptation capacity, in contrast, is about building future preparedness and the ability to adjust to potential climate impacts before they happen. It involves developing skills, knowledge infrastructure, and systems that help communities and nations prepare for and respond to climate change. These include improving early warning systems, developing drought-resistant agriculture, or building flood defenses. The focus is on prevention and preparation rather than recovery and compensation.
L&D requires dedicated funds for compensation and recovery after impacts occur. It often involves complex international funding arrangements such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage, or newly emerging loss and damage funds.	Adaptation focuses on investment in preventive measures and system improvements beforehand. Adaptation funding can work through existing development channels. For example, the Green Climate Fund, or bilateral aid programs, supports initiatives like building flood defenses, enhancing agricultural resilience, or improving water management systems.
L&D requires the creation of specific legal frameworks for liability and compensation, with detailed methods for assessing, verifying, and calculating damages (both economic and non-economic losses) after they occur and ensuring fair compensation for affected communities. For example, countries that have contributed significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions might be held accountable to provide financial support to countries that suffer the most from climate impacts.	Adaptation works within existing development frameworks, measuring potential and progress in building resilience before climate impacts hit. Instead of responding to losses, adaption capacity works to prevent or minimize those losses by making societies more resilient to climate risks. Legal frameworks for adaptation are often about promoting climate-resilient policies, infrastructure, and technology transfer.

Adaptive responses to the impacts of climate change and recommendations for each study area

Liberia

The Liberian government has attempted to mitigate flood risks and coastal erosion through revetment walls, but these efforts have been ineffective due to insufficient research and community engagement. A study of New Kru Town, West Point, and Buchanan found that coastal erosion has caused severe property damage and displacement. Between 1969 and 2009, multiple counties experienced climate-induced disasters, with inadequate government response. Recent projects, such as the Monrovia Metropolitan Climate Resilience Project (2021) and a coastal resilience initiative in Sinoe County (2022), aim to improve coastal defense and community livelihoods. However, more comprehensive strategies are needed.