Climate change, vulnerability and migration: Impacts on children and youth in Southeast Asia

This article is an abridged version of the original text, which can be downloaded from the right-hand column. It highlights some of the publication’s key messages below, but please access the downloadable resource for more comprehensive detail, full references, or to quote text. 

Introduction

This report examines the impacts of labour migration on children in the context of climate change – whether they stay behind or migrate themselves. Through interviews with pre-adolescents and teenagers in six villages in Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam, as well as young returned migrants, migrant parents and grandparents, it portrays life at the intersection of climate change, poverty, marginalization and injustice. Altogether, 92 personal stories inform the analysis, supplemented by interviews with village chiefs, other local leaders and experts, and a review of national policies and the research literature.

The goal is to shed light on the drivers of migration, young people’s needs and aspirations, and ways for national governments, donors and development partners, and international organizations to make a difference. The results will inform the work of World Vision’s East Asia office, which is committed to supporting safe, orderly and dignified migration that upholds the rights, well-being and opportunities of migrants, particularly vulnerable groups such as children.

The study focuses on Southeast Asia because it is a dynamic, ethnically and socio-economically diverse region with significant migration and large disparities in human development. It is also young, with nearly 27% of its population under 15 years of age in 2022, and another 16% aged 15–24. The UN estimates that as of 2020, there were about 10.6 million international migrants in Southeast Asia, with Thailand hosting by far the largest numbers; about 1.27 million were under 18 years old.

Methodology

Two sites and diverse households were selected in each country, aiming to represent different mobility profiles, geographic areas, socio-economic conditions and other factors. Through qualitative field research, the team examined how structures, cultures, processes, norms and institutions influence outcomes, sometimes through intricate causal mechanisms.

The field research included 92 interviews with people affected by climate change and migration and 13 key informant interviews (KIIs) at the community level. The interviews with affected people sought to cover different mobility categories, identities and experiences. The research team also conducted 12 interviews remotely with a range of actors working on issues of child rights, environment, and climate change, and/or migration in global forums and within Asia and the Pacific. These interviews provided insights into the policy landscape, persisting challenges, implementation gaps and good practices that informed the recommendations.

The view from the villages: economic precarity, environmental pressures and mobility

Phnom Proek district, Battambang province (Cambodia)

Phnom Proek district in northwestern Cambodia, near the Thailand border, faces challenges from migration, high disability rates, and limited access to services. Agriculture dominates the economy, with most residents self-employed or unpaid family workers. Environmental impacts from the Khmer Rouge era persist, and frequent floods, droughts, and storms exacerbate poverty and debt, disrupting farming and children’s education. Many residents migrate to cities or Thailand for work due to economic pressures, particularly in two villages where microfinance debts and market access issues deepen the struggles.

Phno Soukhuma district, Champasack province (Lao PDR)

Champasack province in southwestern Lao PDR, particularly Soukhuma district, is highly rural with minimal access to roads and services. Agriculture dominates livelihoods, but extreme weather, including floods and droughts, makes households vulnerable. In village L1, floods frequently isolate residents and damage crops, leading many to migrate to Thailand for work. In village L2, droughts and storms are common, with migration also prevalent. Wealthier households with land are less likely to migrate. Climate change worsens these conditions, particularly for the poorest, who rely on mono-cropping like cassava.

Thuong Xuan district, Thanh Hoa province (Vietnam)

Thuong Xuan district in north central Vietnam is mountainous, poor, and remote, with limited roads and frequent heavy rains, floods, and landslides. The district hosts the Cua Dat hydropower dam, which has increased flood risks for some resettled households. Many residents, including those in village V1, rely on farming but face worsening flood conditions, driving internal migration for work. In contrast, village V2 is more urbanized with better access to factory jobs, leading to more daily commuting or migration, especially among men seeking work in cities.

Parental migration and the children who stay behind

Parents in the six villages migrated under different circumstances, but all wanted to earn more than they could at home. Some were struggling to feed their family due to low crop yields, crop failures, and/or a lack of stable work. Many households, especially in Cambodia, faced crushing debts, often linked to climatic events such as floods, droughts or storms. Medical bills and the need to support elderly parents also motivated migrants. Some were pursuing aspirations such as to purchase land, enable their children to study, or otherwise improve their lives – but distress migration was very common.

Migration patterns were shaped by gender norms. Mothers often stayed behind and cared for the children if they could find jobs locally, while men undertook longer-distance migration. However, many mothers and fathers migrated together, particularly in the poorest families. Several women had also migrated on their own, internally or across borders, reflecting the growing feminization of migration in Southeast Asia. Children stayed behind with the other parent, grandparents or other trusted caregivers.

Migrants from Cambodia and Lao PDR seeking long-term, low-wage work must follow procedures under government memoranda of understanding (MOUs), allowing two-year permits that can be renewed once. For short-term work, they can get “pink cards” for temporary labor. However, both systems prohibit bringing dependents, forcing parents to leave children behind or risk irregular migration. Irregular migrants face dangers and vulnerability, needing to avoid authorities at their destination.

Impacts on children remaining behind

Many migrants found that financial benefits from migration did not meet expectations, as remittances often only covered debt or basic expenses. These economic gains came with emotional costs, especially for children left behind, who experienced distress, poor educational outcomes, and increased household responsibilities. Elder siblings, particularly girls, often took on caregiving roles, while boys performed dangerous tasks. Some children even worked to support the household, which affected their physical and mental health. In Cambodia, children also feared debt collectors’ threats during their parents’ absence.

Child migration in the context of environmental change

Children interviewed for this study said they had migrated for a variety of reasons, such as to pay off household debts, cover their siblings’ school fees, cover medical expenses, and generally help improve their family’s situation. Each story was different, but in all six villages, the drivers were closely linked to the broader socio-economic context and the impacts of climate and environmental changes.

Lack of legal status often keeps migrant children in Thailand from accessing education or health care. More commonly, children who migrate with their parents work alongside them. Informal employment predominates across the region, and migrants are particularly likely to be informally employed. The legal working age is 14 in Cambodia and Lao PDR, and 15 in Viet Nam and Thailand, with some exceptions.

Several children who had migrated described getting sick or being injured on the job, and not all had access to health care services – or if they did, some had to pay high fees. The emotional impacts of these experiences can be severe and long- lasting.

Towards a brighter future: agenda for action

As the climate crisis worsens, children and youth in Southeast Asia face mounting threats to their health, education, livelihoods and economic prospects. Climate change impacts, compounded in some cases by infrastructure development such as dam construction, are deepening poverty and inequality and making people ever more vulnerable to distress migration and, through it, to exploitation and abuse.

This study ends with the following recommendations:

• Enhance community resilience through robust infrastructure and disaster preparedness: Interviews highlighted the lack of basic infrastructure in villages, including poor roads, damaged schools, and inadequate water and sanitation systems. Governments should prioritize climate-resilient infrastructure, upgrade schools and healthcare, and strengthen social protection systems. Donors, NGOs, and UN agencies should increase funding for infrastructure, support local resilience efforts, address climate risks in education, and provide urgent needs like food and medicine during disasters. Collaborative, participatory processes are crucial to addressing these challenges effectively.
• Provide flexible and fair support for sustainable livelihoods: Many adults and children expressed a desire not to migrate, preferring to stay with their families if they had stable jobs, farms, and could avoid debt and hunger. To support this, governments should enhance agricultural support, provide crop insurance, improve access to low-interest loans, and expand non-farm livelihoods. Donors, NGOs, and UN agencies should help diversify livelihoods, promote financial literacy, and regulate predatory lending. These efforts can increase resilience and reduce the need for migration.
• Protect both parents and children who migrate: Parents and children who migrated reported traumatic experiences, including exploitation and abuse, especially during irregular cross-border migration. Regular migration channels prevent low-wage workers from bringing families, making the journey difficult for child migrants. To address this, governments should improve migration policies, oversight, and support for migrant families. Donors, NGOs, and UN agencies should promote safe migration, gender-responsive programs, and assistance for those traveling irregular routes or returning home. Programs should focus on protecting migrants, preventing trafficking, and supporting children left behind.
• Care for caregivers – and the children who stay with them: While caregivers, such as grandparents and single parents, are dedicated to the well-being of the children, they often face challenges. To improve outcomes for these children, governments should enhance social protection for single-parent and elder-headed households, adapt child well-being and food security programs for older caregivers and young mothers, and involve grandparents as key contributors in their communities. International organizations, NGOs, and donors should promote intergenerational dialogues, offer caregiver support programs, and provide targeted assistance to migrant families, including ways to help them stay connected through technology.
• Empower children and youth to be able to build a better future for themselves: Beyond protection, young people should be empowered to participate in decisions shaping their future. Governments, NGOs, and international organizations must integrate climate education, support youth engagement in policy-making, and protect young climate advocates. Safe migration can help youth escape poverty, but adults must ensure they have opportunities to thrive both in migration and in their home communities. It’s crucial to involve and empower them in shaping their future.

Citation

Vigil, S., Steiner, C., Kim, D., Flores, D., and Davis, M. (2024): Climate change, vulnerability and migration: Impacts on children and youth in Southeast Asia. World Vision International and Stockholm Environment Institute, Bangkok, Thailand.